Panel structure and associated method

ABSTRACT

A panel structure for a vehicle, and especially for an aircraft or spacecraft, includes an area member, especially a skin member, that defines an areal expanse with a first surface and an opposite second surface and having a thickness between the first and second surfaces; and a plurality of elongate stiffener members which are attached to the area member and extend over at least one of the first and second surfaces; wherein at least one of the stiffener members is bifurcated at a bifurcation point into two or more branch stiffener members.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.14/883,897 filed on Oct. 15, 2015, which claims the benefit of theEuropean patent application No. 14189185.3 filed on Oct. 16, 2014, theentire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by way of reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a new panel structure for a vehicle,especially for an aircraft or a spacecraft, and a new method forproducing such a panel structure, as well as to a vehicle that includessuch a panel structure.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Although this invention is especially designed for use in the aircraftand aerospace industries, it will be appreciated that it may also beemployed in nautical and land vehicle applications, such as rail and/orautomotive applications.

In the aircraft and aerospace industries, stiffened panels, andespecially stringer-stiffened panels have become standard as alight-weight construction solution. Indeed, typically more than 90% ofthe fuselage or the outer “skin” of modern passenger aircraft isdesigned as stringer-stiffened panels. In this regard, a “stringer” is astiffening member which increases the out-of-plane bending stiffness ofa structural panel or area member. With stringers, a panel is reinforcedagainst global buckling under compression and shear loading. Theresulting instability and collapse loading of the panel member isthereby shifted to higher loading with a lower structural weight penaltycompared to simply thickening the panel member itself. Stringers alsolimit the dimensions of any buckling in the panel member or skin tolocalized regions between the stringers (i.e., the “skin bays”), toprovide so-called local buckling. By reducing buckling field dimensions(i.e., the size of the skin bays), the buckling strength of the panelmember or skin is increased.

While design efforts are continually directed to reducing the mass of anaircraft in order to optimize fuel consumption, it nevertheless remainscritical that strength and safety of the aircraft structure is notcompromised and that the testing standards are still met.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A new and improved panel structure for a vehicle, and particularly anaircraft, is therefore devised that can satisfy current safety andtesting standards yet also enable a lower mass construction.

According to one aspect, therefore, the invention provides a panelstructure for a vehicle, and especially for an aircraft or spacecraft,comprising: an area member, such as a panel member or skin member; and aplurality of elongate stiffener members which are attached to the areamember and extend over at least one of side thereof; wherein at leastone of the plurality of stiffener members is branched or bifurcated at abranch point or a bifurcation point into two or more branch stiffenermembers. Typically, the area member has an areal expanse and comprises afirst side and an opposite second side, with a thickness of the areamember defined between the first and second sides. The stiffener membersare attached to the area member and extend over at least one of thefirst and second sides thereof.

In this way, the invention provides a new and improved panel structurewhich employs branching, especially bifurcation, of the stiffenermembers to modify a spacing or pitch of the stiffener members in aregion of the area member or panel member which is exposed to higherloading in use. That is, by branching or bifurcating the stiffenermember into at least two branch stiffener members, it becomes possibleto increase the stiffener density (i.e., reduce the spacing or pitch ofthe stiffener members) in that region of the area member or panelmember. Thus, it will be appreciated that the invention contemplatesthat a stiffener member may be divided into more than two branchstiffener members (e.g., via “trifurcation” or “quadfurcation”). But forsimplicity, the term “bifurcated” and variations thereof, such as“bifurcation,” used herein shall be understood as a reference to adivision or branching of a member into two or more branch members,rather than as being limited to only two branch members. Whereaslocalized strengthening for non-uniform loading of a panel structure hasconventionally been provided by localized thickening of the area memberor panel member, the present invention provides a lower weight and moreeconomical design approach. In particular, use of bifurcated stiffenermembers (e.g., stringers) offers greater freedom in the design of astiffened panel structure with relatively little additional weight. Itwill be noted that the term “area member” in this disclosure is ageneral term for a member, such as a panel, skin or sheet, presenting arelatively large areal expanse between opposite surfaces or sidesthereof compared to a thickness dimension between those surfaces orsides.

In conventional panel structure design, a uniform pitch of the stiffenermembers (e.g., stringers) will usually be fixed at an early designphase. If a skin bay between the stringers experiences buckling in theconventional design process, the skin thickness of the affected skinbays is then increased. However, increasing skin thickness to preventbuckling is much less efficient than applying stiffeners. This is due tothe different, non-linear relationship between the buckling strength ofthe skin member in local buckling and the buckling strength of thestiffeners against global buckling. A local buckling strength of theskin scales with the second power of its thickness, whereas the globalbuckling strength of a stiffener typically scales with the third powerof a height of the stiffener. As the thickness of the skin is usuallysmall compared to the height of the stiffener, one must add considerablymore mass to the skin to prevent buckling compared with the stiffeners.Thus, the bifurcated stiffener members in the panel structure of theinvention provide a practical new light-weight panel structure design.

In one embodiment of the invention, an angle of bifurcation between thebranch stiffener members decreases as the branch stiffener membersextend away from the bifurcation point. In other words, the branchstiffener members desirably diverge less as they extend away from thebifurcation point and may follow a path in which, after the bifurcation,the branch stiffener members then extend approximately parallel to oneanother. To this end, at least one of the two branch stiffener members,and optionally both of them, may extend through a bend or a kink toreduce or decrease the angle of bifurcation as the branch stiffenermembers extend away from the bifurcation point. In particular, the bendor kink of the at least one branch stiffener member is preferablythrough a predetermined angle back towards the other of the two branchstiffener members. This change in the path or direction of the branchstiffener members after the initial bifurcation serves to smooth atransition between the different spacings or pitches of the stiffenermembers and/or branch stiffener members.

In another embodiment, each of a plurality of the stiffener members onthe area member is branched or bifurcated into at least two branchstiffener members at a respective branch point or bifurcation point. Therespective branch points or bifurcation points are therefore preferablydistributed or offset with respect to one another, especially in aradial direction. The distributed or offset positions of the branchpoints or bifurcation points serve to provide a generally smoothtransition from one stringer spacing or pitch in one region of the panelstructure to another stringer spacing or pitch in an adjoining region ofthe panel structure.

In yet another embodiment, the stiffener members and branch stiffenermembers are arranged to provide an approximately uniform pitch orspacing between adjacent stiffener members and/or adjacent branchstiffener members in a local region of the panel structure.

In a further embodiment of the invention, the area member (i.e., panelmember or skin member) of the panel structure has a roundedconfiguration, as is typically found in a pressure bulkhead of anaircraft fuselage, or a tapered configuration, or a generallyrectangular configuration. In this regard, the panel structure isparticularly suitable for panels having non-uniform internal loadsand/or panels having non-uniform or concentrated external loads.

In a further embodiment, the panel structure may comprise a part of astructural component and may, for example, include the plurality ofstiffener members arranged between and attached to two or more areamembers or panel members, such that the stiffener members form areinforcing framework or structure, which is enclosed and/or covered bythe respective area members or panel members.

According to another aspect, the present invention provides a method ofproducing a panel structure for a vehicle, such as an aircraft orspacecraft, comprising:

providing an area member, and especially a panel member or skin member,that defines an areal expanse having a first surface and an oppositesecond surface, with a thickness of the area member between the firstand second surfaces; and

arranging a plurality of elongate stiffener members extending over atleast one of the first and second surfaces of the area member forattachment to the area member;

wherein the step of arranging the stiffener members comprises branchingor bifurcating at least one of the stiffener members at a branch pointor bifurcation point into two or more branch stiffener members.

In one embodiment, a position or location on the area member of thebranch point in the at least one stiffener is selected or determinedbased on: a buckling threshold of a region of the area member adjacentthe at least one stiffener member and a required minimum design load forthe area member in that region; and/or a maximum allowable longitudinalforce in the at least one stiffener member.

As also discussed above, in a preferred embodiment the step of arrangingthe stiffener members comprises decreasing a branch angle or an angle ofbifurcation between the branch stiffener members as the branch stiffenermembers extend away from the branch point. More particularly, the stepof arranging the stiffener members may include extending or directing atleast one of the branch stiffener members, and optionally both, througha bend or kink to reduce the branch angle or bifurcation angle as thebranch stiffener members extend away from the bifurcation point.

In a further embodiment of the invention, the step of arranging thestiffener members comprises bifurcating each of a plurality of thestiffener members at a respective bifurcation point into at least twobranch stiffener members. The method may then preferably furthercomprise: distributing or offsetting the bifurcation points with respectto one another; for example, offsetting the bifurcation points from oneanother in a radial direction.

In another embodiment, the step of arranging the stiffener memberscomprises digital modelling with respect to positions of the stiffenermembers. The method of producing the panel structure preferably includesan Additive Layer Manufacturing (ALM) technique, which provides highdesign flexibility with respect to geometric constraints. In thisregard, ALM may be used to deposit and build up both the area memberitself and the stiffener members which are fixed to and extend over atleast one surface or side of the area member in an integral or unitaryconstruction; e.g., based upon a digital model of the panel structure.In an alternative embodiment, the panel structure stiffener members maybe deposited and built up on, and attached to, a pre-formed area member.The method of producing the panel structure need not necessarily employALM techniques and may comprise other manufacturing steps, such asmilling, casting, riveting, welding, as well as techniques for compositematerials (e.g., fiber-reinforced polymer FRP composites) joined bybonding and/or fastening.

According to a further aspect, the present invention provides a vehicle,such as an aircraft or spacecraft, having at least one panel structure,and preferably several, according to any one of the embodimentsdescribed above.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a more complete understanding of the present invention and theadvantages thereof, exemplary embodiments of the invention are explainedin more detail in the following description with reference to theaccompanying drawings, in which like reference characters designate likeparts and in which:

FIG. 1 shows (a) a plan view, (b) front view, and (c) side view of anaircraft showing suitable areas (darker or shaded) for a panel structureaccording to the invention; namely, over 90% of a fuselage or outer skinof modern passenger aircraft includes stringer stiffened panels.

FIG. 2 shows an example of a typical aircraft fuselage design withframes and stringers.

FIG. 3 is an example of a rectangular stringer-stiffened panel structurewith a typical stringer pattern.

FIG. 4 shows an example of a tapered panel structure with parallelstringers found in a wing.

FIG. 5 shows an example of a round and spherically curved stiffenedpanel structure for a pressure bulkhead inside an aircraft fuselage.

FIG. 6 is a schematic perspective view of a conventionalstringer-stiffened panel structure with a typical assumed constantloading.

FIG. 7 is an idealized conventional rectangular stringer-stiffened panelstructure shown in end view (a) and plan view (b). The uniform loading(arrows) results in uniform stringer pitch combined with uniform skinthickness. The panel is optimized for this type of loading by keepingthe stringer pitch and skin thickness uniform.

FIG. 8 is an example of a rectangular stringer-stiffened panelstructure, shown in end view (a) and a plan view (b), of conventionalform with a real-world non-uniform loading on its right edge. (Note: Forclarity, shear along the long panel edges resulting from thedisequilibrium of the loading on the left and right short panel edges isnot shown.)

FIG. 9 is an example of a rectangular state-of-the-artstringer-stiffened panel structure with non-uniform loading. This panelstructure has uniform stringer pitch but varying, non-uniform skinthicknesses to prevent buckling.

FIG. 10 shows a pattern of stiffening elements on a bottom side of agiant water lily Victoria cruziana leaf.

FIG. 11 is an example of a circular or spherical stringer-stiffenedpanel with straight radial stringers. The buckling field width b variesover radius r.

FIG. 12 shows a comparison of different stiffener layouts for circularor spherical stringer-stiffened panel structures (a) classic patternwith straight radial (and circumferential) stiffeners, which produces anincreasing buckling field size from the center to outer edge; (b) apattern with simple bifurcated radial stiffeners which results invarying buckling field size from the center to outer edge; and (c) astiffener layout according to an embodiment of the invention havingbifurcated radial stringers with bifurcation points at different radialpositions and kinked stiffeners after the bifurcation to keep thebuckling field sizes generally uniform or as uniform as possible overthe panel area.

FIG. 13 is a sketch of a stringer layout on a circular or sphericalpanel structure of an embodiment with bifurcated radial stringers. Thebifurcation points are located a different radial positions r and thebifurcated stringer pairs that stem from the bifurcation point arekinked towards one another to keep the buckling field width b as uniformas possible over the radius r. This results in more uniform bucklingfield sizes than in the stringer layouts shown in FIGS. 12 (a) and (b).

FIG. 14 is a schematic view of (a) a rectangular panel structure withconventional stringer layout having uniform stringer pitch, and (b) arectangular panel structure with bifurcated stringer layout according toan embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 15 is an example of a rectangular panel structure, shown in an endview (a) and a plan view (b), according to an embodiment of theinvention with non-uniform loading and with a bifurcated stringerlayout, with the bifurcations distributed or offset at differentx-datums to maintain uniform thickness of the panel skin.

FIG. 16 is a schematic illustration of bifurcation point P, bifurcationangle β, kink K, and kink back angle γ.

FIG. 17 shows an embodiment of a circular and spherically curved panelstructure with a stiffener layout that may be used e.g., as a rearpressure bulkhead inside an aircraft fuselage.

FIG. 18 is an embodiment of a rectangular panel structure according tothe invention in an application as an aircraft aileron or spoiler. Thetop skin member is removed to show inner stiffeners with bifurcations.

FIG. 19 is an example of a state-of-the-art tapered panel structure,shown in end view (a) and plan view (b), with a conventional parallelstiffener layout.

FIG. 20 is an example of a state-of-the-art tapered panel structure,shown in end view (a) and plan view (b), with a conventional concentricstiffener layout.

FIG. 21 is an embodiment of a tapered panel structure of the invention,shown in end view (a) and plan view (b), with a bifurcated stiffenerlayout.

FIG. 22 is a flow chart showing an embodiment of a method of paneldesign according to the invention with respect to buckling and stiffenerbifurcation.

FIG. 23 shows examples of stiffener layouts for rectangular panelstructures according to the invention; namely (a) a stiffener layoutwith stringer pitch ratio of 4:9 from left to right, (b) a stiffenerlayout with stringer pitch ratio of 4:11, both variants havinglongitudinal stiffeners only. Variants (c) and (d) have the samestringer pitch ratios as in variant (a) and (b), respectively, butinclude transverse stiffeners for lateral support of the longitudinalstiffeners.

FIG. 24 is a flow chart showing an embodiment of a method of paneldesign according to the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The accompanying drawings are included to provide a furtherunderstanding of the present invention and are incorporated in andconstitute a part of this specification. The drawings illustrateparticular embodiments of the invention and together with thedescription serve to explain the principles of the invention. Otherembodiments of the invention and many of the attendant advantages of theinvention will be readily appreciated as they become better understoodwith reference to the following detailed description.

It will be appreciated that common and well understood elements that maybe useful or necessary in a commercially feasible embodiment are notnecessarily depicted in order to facilitate a more abstracted view ofthe embodiments. The elements of the drawings are not necessarilyillustrated to scale relative to each other. It will further beappreciated that certain actions and/or steps in an embodiment of amethod may be described or depicted in a particular order of occurrenceswhile those skilled in the art will understand that such specificitywith respect to sequence is not necessarily required. It will also beunderstood that the terms and expressions used in the presentspecification have the ordinary meaning as is accorded to such terms andexpressions with respect to their corresponding respective areas ofinquiry and study, except where specific meanings have otherwise beenset forth herein.

With reference first to FIG. 1 of the drawings, a commercial passengeraircraft A having a fuselage F, wings W, vertical tail-plane T andhorizontal tail-plane H is illustrated. More than 90% of the outer skinof the aircraft A is designed as and comprised of stiffened panels, asillustrated in FIG. 2. In particular, the outer skin panel members arestiffened by parallel and longitudinally extending stringer members Sand circumferentially extending frame members or ribs R. Further, innerpanel structures of the aircraft A are typically also designed asstringer-stiffened panels. For example, these may include panelstructures of the wings W including spars and ribs, or parts of thevertical and horizontal stabilizers or tail-planes T, H, in addition toflaps and ailerons, and/or a pressure bulkhead BH inside the fuselage F.FIGS. 3 to 5 of the drawings show examples of such types of panelstructures. Accordingly, a panel structure of the present invention issuitable for use in a wide range of different applications in theaircraft industry.

With reference to FIG. 6 for example, a conventional panel structure 1comprises a panel member or skin member 2 having a relatively largeareal expanse over a first (i.e., an inner) side or surface 3 thereofand an opposite second (i.e., outer) side or surface 4 of the area orskin member 2 compared to a relatively small thickness 5. This panelstructure 1 may, for example, comprise a portion of a curved aircraftfuselage F. The inner side 3 of the skin member 2 comprises a pluralityof elongate stiffener members 6 attached to the skin member 2 forreinforcing same, whereas the opposite outer side 4 of the panel or skinmember 2 remains generally smooth. The stiffener members 6 includestringers S (e.g., hat-stringers or cap-stringers) which extendlongitudinally and frame members or ribs R which extend transversely.The localized regions or sections of the skin member 2 surrounded by thestiffener members 6 (i.e., between the stringers S and the ribs R) arereferred to as panel “bays” or skin “bays” 7.

During conventional design of a panel structure 1, a uniform pitch orspacing 8, 8′ of the stiffener members 6 (e.g., ribs or stringers) willusually be fixed at an early design phase. If not driven by otherconstraints, such as window spacings in fuselage panels 2, the constantpitch 8 of the stringers results from simplified assumptions for loaddistributions acting on stringer stiffened panel structures 1 (see FIG.7). For example, a constant line-load N distributed along an edge of thepanel member 2 is normally assumed. Such assumptions are made toestablish generic tests with reasonable effort and sizing methods, whichare applicable in general to all kinds of panels under differentloadings. At best, the loads are assumed to vary linearly (increasing ordecreasing) to cover bending effects or loads varying over length. Inreal-life aircraft panel structures 1, such as fuselages, wings, and thelike, the loading N′ of a stringer-stiffened panel 2 along an arbitrarycross-section is much more complex. That is, the loading is neitheruniform nor does it vary linearly along a cross-section. A morerealistic loading N′ is shown in FIG. 8 along the right edge of thepanel structure 1.

Thus, conventional panel design processes for stiffened panel structures1 with standard sizing and manufacturing methods only provide acompromise with a uniform stringer pitch 8 and a constant cross-sectionfor the complete panel structure 1. The defined uniform pitch 8 of thestringers 6 and constant cross-section of this method are applied to allparts of the panel structure 1 although it is clear that thesepre-defined parameters can only be optimized for one loading situationin a single cross-section of the panel. If the stringer pitch or spacing8 is not sufficiently small to prevent local buckling of the skin 2 inthe conventional design process, a thickness 5 of the skin or panelmember 2 will be increased locally, as represented by the shading inFIG. 9, where darker shading shows greater thickness.

The mechanical property that prevents buckling of a structure is itsability to withstand bending. The ability to withstand bending orbuckling scales differently, respectively, for the local buckling of apanel member or skin member in a panel bay or skin bay compared withglobal buckling of a stringer. Buckling theory describes the ability ofa skin to withstand buckling by the critical stress σ_(crit,skin). Ifthe stress in the panel member is higher than this value, the panelbuckles.

The critical stress σ_(crit,skin) scales with the squared thickness ofthe skin t_(skin):σ_(crit,skin)˜t_(skin) ²  (1)

The buckling onset of the stringers, on the other hand, scales with thethird power of the stringer height h_(stringer):σ_(crit,stringer)˜h_(stringer) ³  (2)

As the effect on preventing buckling by increasing the skin thickness istherefore so much smaller than by increasing the structural height of astringer, increasing the thickness of the skin is a lessweight-efficient way to prevent the skin from buckling. In other words,conventional solutions which increase the skin thickness to preventlocal buckling of the skin, do not benefit from a minimum possibleweight.

The panel structure 1 of the present invention avoids these constraintsby employing a stiffener (stringer) layout that has been inspired by abiological solution found in the Giant Water Lily (Victoria amazonicaand Victoria cruziana). This design may, in turn, be combined with thedesign freedom of recent manufacturing technologies from the group ofAdditive Layer Manufacturing (ALM) techniques, such as Selective LaserSintering (SLS) and Selective Laser Melting (SLM). Therefore, panelsdesigned and manufactured according to the invention can have a lowerweight and also reduced recurring costs, as ALM techniques allowmanufacturing of highly integrated parts reducing assembly effort.

FIG. 10 of the drawings shows the underside of a leaf of the Giant WaterLily (Victoria cruziana), which is stiffened by an arrangement ofgenerally radially directed stringers S and circumferentially orientatedsmaller intercostals C. The main stringers S and the intercostals Csurround or enclose nearly quadratic zones or bays B of the planar,skin-like part of the leaf. The main stringers S commence at a centralpoint close to a center of the leaf and spread out in a radial directiontowards an edge of the leaf A circumferential distance betweenneighboring stringers S therefore increases with increasing distancefrom the leaf center. However, it appears that once the circumferentialdistance between two main stringers S exceeds a certain value, the mainstringers bifurcate into two or more branch stringers S′ to keep thedistance between the stringers S, S′ within certain limits. It isconsidered that bifurcation of its main stringers S helps the plantcontrol the area of each skin bay B. That is, the Giant Water Lilylocally adapts a pitch or spacing of its stiffener members S, S′ to itsspecific needs in respect of metabolism and structural loading. Thishelps the Giant Water Lily to maximize energy harvesting from thesunlight with a minimum expense of energy and material to build up theleaves. And considering the relative low strength and elastic moduli ofplant fibers compared to technical materials, the stiffness of the leafis astonishing.

Thus, a key feature of a panel structure 1 according to the presentinvention concerns the use of stiffener bifurcation to control the(local) buckling field size. In particular, the panel design of theinvention adapts the size of a skin bay 7 (i.e., the buckling field) inorder to prevent buckling and adopts a skin thickness 5 only to satisfythe strength or stiffness requirements. In the proposed design, this isdone by varying a size of the buckling field or skin bay 7 locally frombay to bay to fulfil the buckling requirements in each region withoutincreasing the skin thickness. Instead, the number of stiffener members6 in the affected region of the panel member 2 is increased. In atransition zone between a region of the panel member 2 having a lowerstiffener density and a region of the panel member 2 having a higherstiffener density, the stiffener members 6 can bifurcate similar to themain stringers S of the Giant Water Lily leaf.

To highlight the differences between a panel structure 1 of theinvention having a stiffener layout inspired by the Giant Water Lily andpanel structures with conventional, state-of-the-art stiffener layouts,reference is made to the drawing FIGS. 11 and 12.

FIG. 11 of the drawings shows a conventional stiffener layout for acircular or spherical shaped stringer stiffened panel. The stiffeners 6themselves are straight and extend radially from a center of the panel 2to the outer edge of the panel. This configuration produces a bucklingfield width b which varies with the radius r; i.e., b(r₂)>b(r₁).

Drawing FIG. 12 compares panel structures 1 having different stiffenerlayouts. Each of the stiffener layouts (a) and (b) has a stringer pitchb that varies with radius r; i.e., b(r). Thus, the stringer pitch b(r)is not constant:b(r)≠constant  (3)

In contrast, by applying the concept of the invention a panel structure1 having a stiffener layout as shown in FIG. 12(c) can be achieved. Withthe exception of locations where one of the stiffeners 6 bifurcates andan innermost center of the panel 2, the pitch 8 of the radial stiffeners6 is held more or less constant over the radius:b(r)≈constant  (4)

Furthermore, the bifurcation points P of the stiffeners 6 are notlocated at a common radius r, as shown for the principle in FIG. 12(b).Instead the positions of the bifurcations P have varying radii r. Thisprinciple can perhaps more clearly be seen with reference to FIG. 13.That is, the transition from one stringer pitch b(r₁) to anotherstringer b(r₂) can be smoothed and the stringer pitch b(r) can be heldroughly uniform with varying panel radius. Furthermore, the approx.quadratic panel bays or skin bays 7 (i.e., the local buckling fields)also remain approx. the same size with varying radius r₁ and r₂.

In addition to developing a panel structure 1 according to the inventionwith a circular or spherically curved stringer-stiffened panel member orskin member 2, the basic principle of a panel structure 1 havingbifurcated stiffeners 6 can be employed for rectangular panels, as shownin FIGS. 14 and 15. Drawing FIG. 14 compares a conventional panelstructure with stringers arranged having a uniform pitch in FIG. 14(a)with a sketch of a panel structure 1 according to an embodiment of theinvention in FIG. 14(b) having bifurcating stringers 6. FIG. 15 shows arectangular panel structure 1 according to an embodiment of theinvention with non-uniform side loading N′. The panel structure 1 hasstiffeners 6 (e.g., stringers) which extend longitudinally of the panelmember 2, with three of the stringers 6 bifurcated at respectivebifurcation points P into at least two branch stringers 6′. Thebifurcation points P are distributed or offset from one another atdifferent x-datums according to the local buckling strength required inorder to maintain a uniform or constant thickness 5 of the panel or skinmember 2.

The bifurcation angle β of the stiffeners 6 is usually about 60°, thoughthis may vary, preferably within a range of ±20°. As noted above, thebifurcated branch stiffeners 6′ do not continue straight at the samebifurcation angle β after the bifurcation point P. Instead, thebifurcation angle β between the branch stiffener members 6′ typicallydecreases as the branch stiffener members 6′ extend away from theirrespective bifurcation point P. This is apparent from FIG. 16, whichshows detail of a bifurcation point P in the panel structure 1 of FIG.15. In particular, both of the branch stiffener members 6′ extendsthrough a respective bend or a kink K of angle γ to reduce or decreasethe bifurcation angle β as the branch stiffeners 6′ extend away fromtheir bifurcation point P. Thus, the branch stiffeners 6′ kink backtowards each other by the kink-back angle γ as shown in FIG. 16.Usually, the kink-back angle γ is half of the bifurcation angle β orsmaller. This feature helps to keep the stiffener pitches 8 and bucklingfield size 7 generally uniform (more-or-less) over the entire panelmember 2. Using bifurcated stiffeners without reducing the bifurcationangle β after bifurcation, e.g., via kink-back, results in a stiffenerlayout with non-uniform, varying stringer pitches as shown in FIG.12(b).

FIG. 17 of the drawings shows one possible application of a panelstructure 1 of the invention as a rear pressure bulk-head for locationinside the stern fuselage of the aircraft (e.g., compare with FIG. 5).FIG. 18 shows another possible application of a panel structure 1 of theinvention as an aileron or spoiler, which could be produced in one shotwith an ALM machine. This perspective view in FIG. 18 shows the aileronor spoiler with one panel member or skin 2 removed to reveal thestiffener layout. Thus, it will be noted that the panel structure 1 ofthe invention can be embodied in a structural component which may, forexample, comprise two or more skin members or panel members 2 whichcover or enclose the plurality of stiffener members 6, 6′.

Furthermore, with reference to FIGS. 19 to 21, it will be seen that thisinvention may also be applied to tapered panel structures 1, which varyin width over their length. FIGS. 19 and 20 shows two examples oftapered panel structures having conventional stiffener layouts. Byapplying the principles of the present invention, with distributedbifurcation points P and back kinking K, the stiffener layout of thetapered panel structure 1 may be modified as shown in FIG. 21.

Although the various embodiments of the panel structures 1 describedabove include the stiffener members 6 attached to one side or surface 3of the respective panel member 2, while the opposite side or surface 4of the panel member 2 remains free of stiffeners, it will be appreciatedby persons skilled in the art that, depending on the particularrequirements of the structure 1, in other embodiments the stiffenermembers 6 may be attached to both sides 3, 4 of the panel member 2.

A method for determining whether a stiffener member 6 of a stiffenedpanel structure 1 according to the invention should bifurcate orwhether, on the contrary, two (branch) stiffener members 6, 6′ should becombined into one, with respect to the local buckling properties of thepanel member 2 is shown in principle as a flow chart in FIG. 22. It isunderstood by persons skilled in this field that panel buckling is onlyone of many criteria that a stiffened panel structure 1, e.g., foraviation or aerospace industries, needs to fulfill. Other criteriainclude, for example, strength and damage tolerance. Therefore, the flowchart depicted in FIG. 22 represents only one part of the overall panelsizing and design process.

The proposed process starts with a given preliminary panel design atstep 1. In step 2, the reserve factors RF against buckling for eachdesign load case LC(i) and each desired buckling modeMode(j)·RF_(buck1,LC(i),Mode(j)) will be determined. Depending on thevalue of RF_(buck1,LC(i),Mode(j)), there may be two possibilities as tohow the panel can be improved:

Firstly, if the RF_(buck1,LC(i),Mode(j)) is greater than one plus acertain threshold c (see “Terminology” below for explanation) then thepanel has reserves against buckling even for the most critical load caseand the panel can be made lighter by increasing the stiffener pitchlocally in those zones. This is done by combining two (or more)stiffeners or stringers into a single stiffener. This is path isfollowed, when the answer to the question from step 3 is “no.”

In the other case, if step 3 is answered with “yes,” the next decisionhas to be made in step 4: If RF_(buck1,LC(i),mode(j)) is smaller than 1,then the path with the answer “no” is to be followed. This means thepanel 2 will start to buckle before the design load is achieved. Inorder to shift buckling onset to higher loads, the stiffener pitch 8 isincreased locally in the affected area. This is done by bifurcating one(or more) of the stiffeners or stringers 6.

After modification of the stiffeners 6, the process is then iteratedfrom step 2 onwards, until all RF_(buck1,LC(i),Mode(j)) fall between 1and 1+ε. The stiffened panel structure 1 is then designed with a minimumweight against buckling according to the invention.

Thus, the method preferably includes determining whether a stiffenermember or stringer of the panel structure should bifurcate based on oneor more of the criteria:

-   -   i) If the skin of the buckling field surrounded by the stiffener        members or stringers begins to buckle before a required minimum        design load, and/or    -   ii) If the longitudinal force flux inside the stringer itself is        higher than the allowable value.

On the other hand, the method may include determining whether two (ormore) stiffener members or stringers of a panel structure should becombined based on the criteria:

-   -   i) If the skin of the buckling field surrounded by the stringers        begins to buckle above the required minimum design load by a        certain amount defined by the threshold c, and/or    -   ii) If the longitudinal force flux inside the stringer itself is        lower than the allowable value.

Finally, referring to FIG. 24 of the drawings, a flow diagram is shownthat schematically illustrates the steps in a method of producing apanel structure 1 for a vehicle, especially for an aircraft A, accordingany one of the embodiments of the invention described above with respectto FIGS. 13 to 23. In this regard, the first box I of FIG. 24 representsthe step of providing an area member 2, especially a panel member orskin member, that defines an areal expanse comprising a first surface 3and an opposite second surface 4, with the area member 2 having asubstantially constant thickness 5 between the first and second surfaces3, 4. The second box II then represents the step of arranging aplurality of elongate stiffener members 6 extending over at least one ofthe first and second surfaces 3, 4 of the area member 2 for attachmentto the area member 2. Then, as a subsidiary step of arranging thestiffener members 6, the third box III represents the step of dividingor bifurcating at least one of the stiffener members at a bifurcationpoint P into two (or more) branch stiffener members 6′ in dependence onlocal buckling strength requirements of the area member 2. The stepsrepresented by box II and box III of FIG. 24 may optionally be carriedout in a digital modelling of the panel structure 1. The final box IV inFIG. 24 of the drawings represents the step of physically manufacturingor producing the panel structure 1 with the stiffener members 6, 6′attached to the area member 2 according to the arrangement designed inthe steps represented by box II and box III. The manufacturing orproduction steps may comprise an Additive Layer Manufacturing (ALM)technique, such as SLM or SLS, in which the stiffener members 6, 6′ aredeposited and built up on and attached to the area member 2. In thisregard, the area member 2 may also be deposited and built up with theALM technique, such that a single ALM process may produce the panelstructure 1 as an integral or unitary structure. Alternatively, themethod may comprise other conventional manufacturing techniques, such asmilling, casting, riveting, welding, and/or techniques for manufacturingcomposite components, such as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites,joined by bonding and/or fastening.

Although specific embodiments of the invention have been illustrated anddescribed herein, it will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill inthe art that a variety of alternate and/or equivalent implementationsexist. It should be appreciated that the exemplary embodiment orexemplary embodiments are only examples, and are not intended to limitthe scope, applicability, or configuration in any way. Rather, theforegoing summary and detailed description will provide those skilled inthe art with a convenient road map for implementing at least oneexemplary embodiment, it being understood that various changes may bemade in the function and arrangement of elements described in anexemplary embodiment without departing from the scope as set forth inthe appended claims and their legal equivalents. Generally, thisapplication is intended to cover any adaptations or variations of thespecific embodiments discussed herein.

In this document, the terms “comprise,” “comprising,” “include,”“including,” “contain,” “containing,” “have,” “having,” and anyvariations thereof, are intended to be understood in an inclusive (i.e.,non-exclusive) sense, such that the process, method, device, apparatusor system described herein is not limited to those features or parts orelements or steps recited but may include other elements, features,parts or steps not expressly listed or inherent to such process, method,article, or apparatus. Furthermore, the terms “a” and “an” used hereinare intended to be understood as meaning one or more unless explicitlystated otherwise. Moreover, the terms “first,” “second,” “third,” etc.are used merely as labels, and are not intended to impose numericalrequirements on or to establish a certain ranking of importance of theirobjects.

Terminology

ALM Additive Layer Manufacturing. This is a class of manufacturingtechnology, which is used to build up parts layer for layer.

b stringer pitch or width of a skin bay

ε threshold. In the context of this disclosure, the threshold c is usedtogether with the reserve factor for buckling, RF_(buck1). For practicalreasons a real world stiffened panel with a number of critical loadcases can normally not be designed to a condition, where the minimumreserve factor against buckling RF_(buck1,min) is exactly equal to 1over the entire panel. In order to decide whether a stiffener shouldbifurcate or be combined, a certain threshold above 1 is accepted. Thevalue for ε is based on experience and is typically in the range from0.1 to 0.5.

LC load case.

Mode mode, e.g., buckling mode.

n_(LCs) number of load cases.

n_(modes) number of (buckling) modes.

RF reserve factor. Measure to describe the reserves of a structure withrespect to a specific strength or failure criteria. A reserve factorbigger than or equal to one (RF≥1) means the structure withstandsapplied loads in acceptable manner A reserve factor smaller than one(RF<1) means the structure fails to comply with the strengthrequirement. The reserve factor will be determined by analysis ortesting.

RF_(buck1) reserve factor with respect to buckling.

r radius

SLM Selective Laser Melting. A type of ALM technology which builds partsfrom welding microscopic powder particles together. Welding occurs verylocally inside a focused laser with typically less than 0.5 mm diameter.In contrast to SLS, the powder particles with SLM will melt completelyand be welded together to generate parts with very low void content andhigh strength and durability.

SLS Selective Laser Sintering. A type of ALM technology which buildsparts from sintering microscopic powder particles together by a focusedlaser. As the powder particles are not completely molten as with SLM,the void content is higher and the strength is slightly reduced comparedto parts made by SLM.

σ_(crit) critical stress. In the context of this disclosure, σ_(crit) isthe stress level in the panel, when it starts to buckle.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A spoiler for an aircraft, the spoiler comprising: a unitary body comprising: a skin with a first side that defines a portion of an outer surface of the aircraft and a second side opposite the first side; and a plurality of intersecting stiffening members extending away from the second side of the skin and forming a plurality of bays, each bay surrounded by stiffening members, and wherein at least one stiffening member comprises a bifurcation point wherein the at least one stiffening member splits into at least two stiffening members.
 2. The spoiler of claim 1, wherein the unitary body is formed by an additive layer manufacturing method.
 3. The spoiler of claim 1 further comprising: a second skin, wherein the plurality of intersecting stiffening members are disposed between the skin and the second skin.
 4. The spoiler of claim 1 wherein the body has a tapering thickness.
 5. The spoiler of claim 1 wherein at least a first bay from the plurality of bays is formed as a quadrilateral bay.
 6. The spoiler of claim 5, wherein the quadrilateral bay is disposed along an edge of the spoiler.
 7. The spoiler of claim 6 wherein the quadrilateral bay has a tapering thickness.
 8. The spoiler of claim 5 wherein a second plurality of bays from the plurality of bays are each formed as a quadrilateral bay.
 9. The spoiler of claim 8 wherein the quadrilateral bays are disposed along a trailing edge of the spoiler.
 10. The spoiler of claim 1 wherein the plurality of intersecting stiffening members having a tapering height.
 11. The spoiler of claim 1 wherein the spoiler is formed by milling.
 12. An aircraft comprising: a fuselage and two wings, each wing comprising at least one flap and at least one spoiler, wherein the spoiler comprises a unitary body comprising: a skin with a first side that defines a portion of an outer surface of the aircraft and a second side opposite the first side; and a plurality of intersecting stiffening members extending away from the second side of the skin and forming a plurality of bays, each bay surrounded by stiffening members, and wherein at least one stiffening member comprises a bifurcation point wherein the at least one stiffening member splits into at least two stiffening members.
 13. The aircraft of claim 12, wherein the unitary body is formed by an additive layer manufacturing method.
 14. The aircraft of claim 12 further comprising: a second skin, wherein the plurality of intersecting stiffening members are disposed between the skin and the second skin.
 15. The aircraft of claim 12 wherein a second plurality of bays from the plurality of bays are each formed as a quadrilateral bay.
 16. The aircraft of claim 15 wherein the quadrilateral bays are disposed along a trailing edge of the spoiler.
 17. The aircraft of claim 12 wherein the plurality of intersecting stiffening members having a tapering height.
 18. The aircraft of claim 12 wherein the body comprises a stiffener extending along an edge of the body.
 19. The aircraft of claim 12 wherein the spoiler is formed by milling.
 20. A method of constructing a spoiler for an aircraft wing, the method comprising: forming a unitary body, wherein the unitary body has a skin with a first side that defines a portion of an outer surface of the aircraft, a second side opposite the first side, and a plurality of intersecting stiffening members extending away from the second side of the skin and forming a plurality of bays, each bay surrounded by stiffening members, and wherein at least one stiffening member comprises a bifurcation point wherein the at least one stiffening member splits into at least two stiffening members, and, wherein the unitary body is formed by milling. 